Introduction
Throughout the world, many countries have introduced Information
and Communication Technologies (ICT) into schools via different courses
of action. Their use is also underlined by OECD (2001) as a necessity
for improving quality in teaching and learning. The Ministry of National
Education (MNE) in Turkey has also made huge investments in the hope of
attaining the goal of improving the quality of education through
enriching the learning environment with the help of educational software
and technologies. Integrating ICT training into all levels of primary
education and providing each student with access to ICT equipment and
information sources were also among the objectives of the MNE. In 2001,
2837 ICT classrooms were established. The distribution of educational
software purchased for these schools was also completed in the same
year. ICT classrooms are equipped with computers, printers,
instructional software, electronic references, video players, overhead
projectors and TV. The policy makers in Turkey expected that the
introduction of ICT into formal education settings would improve the
academic performance of teachers by encouraging them to improve their
ability to use and apply technology and software in their jobs. Programs
have been organized for teachers to access to ICT in every circumstance
(MNE, 2003). Furthermore, in-service training opportunities for many
teachers in different subject areas have been provided. It was hoped
that teachers' use of technology in education would improve
educational outcomes, increase technological skills and reduce anxiety
when preparing lessons. Technology usage is an important indicator of
their preparedness to carry out the obligations of daily lessons. In
fact, Woodrow (1992) asserts that any successful transformation in
educational practice requires the development of positive user attitude
toward new technology. The development of teachers' positive
attitudes toward ICT is very significant factor not only for increasing
computer integration but also for avoiding teachers' resistance to
ICT use (Watson, 1998).
The Need for ICT Integration in Schools
ICT integration in schools is needed in order to accomplish many
objectives and improve the quality of lessons in all subject areas as
well as social studies. ICT increasingly pervades various aspects of our
daily lives like work, business, teaching, learning, leisure and health.
Since ICT leads all processes based on information, every individual in
a society should become technology competent. Thus, all schools have to
be equipped with the necessary ICT in order to provide the next
generations with the needed tools and resources for access and use and
to attain the expected skills. Norris, Sullivan and Poirot (2003) point
out the importance of accessibility as: "... teachers' use of
technology for curricular purposes is almost exclusively a function of
their access to that technology" (p. 25). Merely providing schools
with hardware, software and in-service training is not enough. Any
in-service training needs follow-up support, peer coaching and peer
dialogue to ensure successful utilization of new technologies. There
must be active involvement of the teachers concerned in the whole change
process so that there is the element of "ownership" of the
innovation.
Just filling schools with the necessary ICT neither improves the
quality of instruction nor creates more effective learning environments.
However, embracing a broader vision and philosophy, schools should
revise present teaching programs, practices and resources, and ICT
should be integrated into all levels of an educational system from
classrooms to ministries for use in management, teaching and learning
activities. Thus, "Teachers must receive adequate ongoing training,
technology use must be matched to curriculum's philosophy and
theory of learning, and adequate numbers of computers must be
conveniently located within the classroom" (Al-Bataineh &
Brooks (2003), p. 479). As also concluded by Kington, Harris and Leask
(2002) "... it is not necessarily the technology that has to be
innovative, but the approach to teaching and learning must be" (p.
35).
Teachers' ICT Usage
The integration of information and communication technologies can
help revitalize teachers and students. This can help to improve and
develop the quality of education by providing curricular support in
difficult subject areas. To achieve these objectives, teachers need to
be involved in collaborative projects and development of intervention
change strategies, which would include teaching partnerships with ICT as
a tool. Teachers' attitudes are major predictors of the use of new
technologies in instructional settings. Teachers' attitudes toward
ICT shape not only their own ICT experiences, but also the experiences
of the students they teach. According to Zhao and Cziko (2001) three
conditions are necessary for teachers to introduce ICT into their
classrooms: teachers should believe in the effectiveness of technology,
teachers should believe that the use of technology will not cause any
disturbances, and finally teachers should believe that they have control
over technology (p. 27). Demetriadis et al. (2003) reached similar
conclusions in their research study: "Training efforts are
generally welcomed by teachers but consistent support and extensive
training is necessary in order for them to consider themselves able to
integrate ICT in their teaching methodologies" (p. 35). According
to Rogers (1995) one of the major factors affecting people's
attitudes toward a new technology is related to the features of the
technology itself. Rogers points out five basic features of technology
that affect its acceptance and subsequent adoption: relative advantage,
compatibility, complexity, observability, and trialibility. Thus, a new
technology will be increasingly diffused if potential adopters perceive
that the innovation: (1) has an advantage over previous innovations; (2)
is compatible with existing practices, (3) is not complex to understand
and use, (4) shows observable results, and (5) can be experimented with
on a limited basis before adoption.
Preparing students for real life in our technological and diverse
world requires that teachers embed ICT in significant learning
experiences (Braun & Kraft, 1995). However, research studies show
that most teachers do not make use of the potential of ICT to contribute
to the quality of learning environments, although they value this
potential quite significantly (Smeets, 2005). Harris (2002) conducted
case studies in three primary and three secondary schools, which focused
on innovative pedagogical practices involving ICT. Harris (2002)
concludes that the benefits of ICT will be gained "... when
confident teachers are willing to explore new opportunities for changing
their classroom practices by using ICT" (p. 458). As a consequence,
the use of ICT will not only enhance learning environments but also
prepare next generation for future lives and careers (Wheeler, 2001).
Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to explore ICT usage, factors that
support the use, barriers that hinder the use, and self-perceptions of
efficacy and level of expertise, as well as the relationship of
variables by looking at the social studies teachers in selected primary
schools in Turkey. In order to shed light on these topics, this research
study mainly focused on the following nine questions.
1. Which ICT resources (software, instructional tools and
materials) do social studies teacher's use?
2. What are teachers preferred methods for professional
development?
3. What are the incentives that encourage social studies
teachers' technology usage?
4. What are teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy in relation
to ICT usage?
5. What are the barriers social studies teachers face during
technology usage in the teaching-learning process?
6. Is there any relationship between awareness and self-rated
expertise level of teachers and, between self-perception of efficacy and
self-rated expertise level of teachers?
7. Is there any relationship between teachers' computer
related tools usage in the classroom and self-perceptions of efficacy?
8. Is there any relationship between teachers' computer
related tools usage in the classroom and level of expertise?
9. Is there any relationship between having a computer at home and
the expertise level of teachers?
Method
Convenience sampling was used to reach the participants in this
study. The participants for this study were 326 social studies teachers
from fourth and fifth grade of various primary schools, who voluntarily
participated in the study.
The "Information and Communication Technology Usage
Survey" ([alpha]= 0,84) developed by the researchers, mainly based
on discussions in the related literature (Iding, Crosby & Speitel
(2002); Bielefeldt (2001); Haydn, Arthur & Hunt (2001); McCormick
& Scrimshaw, 2001) was used to collect data for this research study.
The survey was composed of five parts. The first part of the survey
consisted of 24 items regarding teachers' software use, as well as
other instructional tools and materials. The purpose of this part was to
find out the self-expertise level of the social studies teachers. The
second part consisted of 9 items about preferences for professional
development on information gathering and support. The subsequent part
consisted of 8 items about factors that encourage teachers' usage
of technology. In the fourth part of the survey there were 18 items
related to teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy. Finally, the
last part was composed of 19 items regarding the barriers that teachers
faced during technology utilization in the teaching-learning process.
Results
In this part of the study, the results of the previously listed
research questions are reported.
ICT resources used by social studies teachers
The majority of social studies teacher in this study, 98.2% have
access to a computer at work and among them 88.7% have access to the
Internet. Daily computer usage of social studies teachers was found to
be as follows: 53.1% uses a computer for less than one hour, 30.7% uses
a computer for between 1 and 3 hours, 2.8% uses a computer for between
3-5 hours and 1.5% uses a computer for more than five hours a day.
The social studies teachers specified their level of expertise on
thirteen types of computer software by using a three-point likert-type
scale (that is,. 2=Good, 1=Average and 0=None) ([alpha]=0,93). Over
fifty-four percent of the participants rated their skills as average or
high at word processing, spreadsheets, presentation software, computer
aided instructional software, web browsers, search engines, electronic
mail, chat/forum, electronic encyclopedias and instructional films.
The social studies teachers indicated their usage of eleven types
of instructional tools and materials by using a three-point likert-type
scale (2=Frequently, 1=Sometimes and 0= Never) ([alpha]=0,81). The
preferred instructional tools according to usage rate are as follows:
board, printed materials, overhead projector, television/video, radio
cassette recorder, multimedia computer and slide projector.
Teachers preferred methods for professional development
The social studies teacher's preferences for professional
development, namely accessing knowledge (5 questions) and support
services (4 questions), were taken through a three-point likert type
scale (2=I prefer, 1=Neutral and 0=I don't prefer) ([alpha]=0.66).
Printed materials (99.4%), Internet resources (83.4%) and self-study
(80.7%) and participation in seminars and workshops (79.1%) were the
most favored knowledge resources for professional development. On the
other hand, the majority of teachers favored every kind of support
service: experienced teachers (96.9%), colleagues in the same field
(87.7%) and technical support group within the school (81.0%).
The incentives that encourage social studies teachers'
technology usage
The participants used a three-point likert-type scale (i.e.
2=Important, 1=Neutral and 0=Not Important) to rate their level of
importance on 8 statements about incentives for adoption (Table-1). All
the statements were rated as important incentives by over 80% of the
teachers. ([alpha]=0.73).
Teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy in relation to ICT
usage
The participants used a three-point likert-type scale (i.e.
2=Agree, 1=Neutral and 0=Disagree) to specify their perceptions on 18
statements about using computers and instructional technologies
([alpha]=0.62) (Table-2). The results showed that teachers believe that
technology will bring to them advantages, but they lack the basic skills
of computer usage, and they also feel that their skills are lacking for
other technologies which could also be used as an aid in the classroom.
Barriers social studies teachers face during technology usage
The participants used a three-point likert-type scale (i.e.
2=Agree, 1=Neutral and 0=Disagree) to rate their level of agreement on
19 statements about barriers to adoption ([alpha]=0.87) (Table-3). Of
the 19 statements, 17 have been rated by more than 50% of the teachers
as major barriers to adoption of technology into the teaching-learning
process. Of these 17 statements the top three are; (1) inefficiency of
teachers' technical knowledge to prepare materials based on
technology, (2) inadequacy of the technology courses offered to students
and (3) lack of incentives for encouraging technology usage.
The relationship between awareness and self-rated expertise level
of teachers and between self-perception of efficacy and self-rated
expertise level of teachers
Correlation analysis was conducted to determine if there are any
relationships between awareness and self-rated expertise level of
teachers and, between self-perception of efficacy and self-rated
expertise level of teachers. The results indicated that there is no
significant relationship between teachers' awareness and their
self-rated expertise level. However, a significant correlation between
teachers' self-perception of efficacy and teachers' self-rated
expertise has been identified.
The relationship between teachers' use of computer related
tools in the classroom and self-perceptions of efficacy
To determine the proportion of variance in the attitudes of
teachers toward ICT in education that could be explained by the selected
independent variables, simple correlations were performed. Simple
correlations (using Pearson and Spearman analyses) were first performed
to identify independent variables that individually correlate with
self-perception of efficacy and related tools usage in the classroom for
each of the four tools: multimedia computer, computer-aided educational
software, computer-projector system and the Internet/Web Environment.
Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate pairwise differences
among the means. The results of these tests, as well as means and
standard deviations for multimedia computer, computer-aided educational
software, computer-projector system and the Internet/Web environment are
reported in Table-5. The results indicated that the groups who sometimes
and frequently use multimedia computer and computer-projector system in
the classroom have a higher self-perception of efficacy than the group
that never uses them. Moreover, the groups that frequently use
educational software and the Internet/Web environment have a higher
perception of efficacy than the one who never used them. In other words,
teachers who have high perception of efficacy tend to use computer
related tools in the classroom more frequently than the others.
The relationship between teachers' use of computer related
tools in the classroom and level of expertise
The expertise level of teachers in a classroom motivates
teachers' use of ICT more effectively. The expertise level of
teachers has been analyzed here. Correlation analysis was conducted to
determine if there is any relationship between teachers' use of
computer related tools in the classroom and the expertise level of
teachers. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the
relationship between the level of expertise and computer related tools
usage of social studies teachers in the classroom for each of the four
tools: Multimedia Computer, Computer-Aided Educational Software,
Computer-Projector System and the Internet/Web Environment.
Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate pairwise differences
among the means. The results of these tests, as well as means and
standard deviations for multimedia computer, educational software,
computer-projector system and the Internet/Web environment are reported
in Table-6. The results indicated that the groups that sometimes and
frequently use computer related tools in the classroom have a higher
level of expertise than the groups that never use them. In other words,
teachers who have a high level of expertise tend to use computer related
tools in the classroom more frequently than the others.
The relationship between having a computer at home and the
expertise level of teachers
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate if there is
a relationship between having computer at home and the expertise level
of teachers. The results showed that teachers who have computer at home
have higher level of expertise than the others (t (312)=-3,891,
p<0.01, Means 10,3849 vs 4,8261).
Discussion
Educators wishing to support the integration of ICT into subject
teaching need to overcome the organizational and political obstacles
that occur as well as certain limiting perspectives, both personal and
professional, that some teachers' may hold. There are few studies
that have analyzed how subject cultures differentially affect
teachers' use of ICT. Studying teacher perspectives on ICT allows
us to suggest further methods for successful integration into the core
subjects. This is the first attempt to make explicit how teachers go
about integrating ICT into core subject social studies in Turkey.
Rapid growth and improvement in ICT have led to the diffusion of
technology in education. Studies in controlled environments suggest that
the use of technology under the right circumstances improves educational
outcomes, and many educators believe that a new pedagogy that
incorporates technology is necessary to prepare students for work in the
information age. The study investigated the perceptions and ICT usage of
social studies teachers. Perceptions and skills in relation to ICT have
been universally recognized as an important factor in the success of
technology integration in education. Findings from this study suggest
that social studies teachers understand the benefits of ICT usage in
education. Social studies teachers considered computers as a viable
educational tool that has the potential to bring about different
improvements to their schools and classrooms. The findings of the study
indicated a very strong positive correlation between teachers'
attitudes toward ICT in education and their perceptions of the
advantages of the use of computers. However, teachers' perceptions
of the compatibility of ICT with their current teaching practices were
not as positive. Teachers pointed out that the class time is too limited
for ICT usage. Hence, the introduction of ICT innovations into education
requires promoting structural, pedagogical and curricular approaches.
Cultural perceptions should be taken into consideration. This conclusion
points to the need for considering cultural factors in studies conducted
in developing countries (Albrini, 2006).
This study examined the extent to which teachers have access to ICT
in assessing the frequency with which teachers used computers for
various activities. Social studies teachers mostly preferred board,
printed materials, overhead projectors, television/video, radio cassette
recorder, multimedia computer and slide projector for instructional
aims. Teachers most frequently used computers for accessing information
on the Internet, communicating electronically, doing word processing and
making slide presentations. Only a few teachers reported using ICT to
help them learn school material, and less than one-fifth regularly used
educational software. Some teachers reported using ICT for programming,
drawing, graphics or analyzing data with spreadsheets, but this is very
rare.
Printed materials (99.4%), Internet resources (83.4%), self-study
(80.7%) and participating in seminars and workshops (79.1%) were the
most favored knowledge resources for professional development. On the
other hand, the majority of teachers favored every kind of support
service: experienced teachers (96.9%), colleagues in the same field
(87.7%) and technical support group within the school (81.0%). Social
studies teachers focused on elective courses and other short, in-service
professional development courses and workshops for professional
development. Teachers pointed out the need for some sharing of
experiences and discussion of new technologies and contemporary issues,
so that teachers receive support in trying to keep up with new
developments in ICT. In addition to longer practical work, teachers
needed more resource materials such as supplementary workbooks and a
resource center where they could find teaching materials and ideas.
The majority of teachers acknowledged the importance of using ICT
in their own teaching. The majority of teachers also reported a lack of
confidence in applying ICT in their teaching. All teachers maintained an
increased enthusiasm to apply ICT in their teaching in every
circumstance. Based on these results, the training course succeeded in
giving the teachers enhanced skills in pedagogical and technical use of
the ICT-based learning, program components and an increased motivation
for using ICT.
The self-expressed feeling of social studies teachers, that they
lacked the "technical knowledge to prepare materials based on
technology", showed the importance of in-service training and
paralleled the result on instructional tools and materials usage.
Moreover, social studies teachers appear to be unaware of possible
technologies that could be helpful in the teaching processes and the
majority does not use ICT. On the other hand, all kinds of professional
development preferences and support service opportunities were highly
rated, showing the willingness of teachers to learn and highlighting the
lack of in-service training opportunities.
What are teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy in relation to
ICT usage? ICT were introduced into schools not as a means, but as an
end. There were no supplementary measures to enable educators to develop
positive attitudes toward the new tools and to use them. This has often
resulted in ad hoc approaches to implementation. It is necessary for
teachers to have the appropriate skills, knowledge and attitudes to
integrate ICT into the curriculum. That is, teachers should become
effective agents to be able to make use of technology in the classroom.
Ultimately, teachers are the most important agents of change within the
classroom arena. This result is similar to that stated by Zhao, Pugh,
Sheldon and Byers (2002): "... teachers need to know the
affordances and constraints of various technologies and how specific
technologies might support their own teaching practices and curricular
goals. They also need to know how to use technologies" (p. 511).
The results indicated that there is no significant relationship
between teachers' awareness and their self-rated expertise level.
However, a strong relationship between teachers' self-perception of
efficacy and teachers' self-rated expertise has been identified
(Pearson r=. 0,552, p<0.01). The lack of confidence in using ICT in
teaching, as observed in this study, could be due to the fact that the
in-service teacher training course was not tailored to the
participants' needs. These conditions need to have been met in
order for the course to act as a positive enabling factor. The design of
the in-service training should have followed guidelines in use, which
states that a stepwise activity should be provided along with the
combination of input, practice, reflection on practice and new input. In
order to solve these problem in-service courses should be organized on
the basis of introductory problem based-learning workshops, where
teachers could learn and practice the method to be used during the
implementation of the learning program. The results showed that although
teachers are willing to use ICT resources and are aware of the existing
potential, they are facing problems with accessibility to ICT resources
and lack of in-service training opportunities. These two main points are
also underlined by Galanouli and McNair (2001) when they state:
"... schools must be supported and resourced properly, and teachers
must have effective ICT training, before improvements in school-based
ICT development for student-teachers can be achieved" (p. 396). It
has been found that social studies teachers use computer technology,
especially application software or tool applications. This shows a trend
towards the use of application software in classroom teaching and
learning. Thus, personal, reinforcing and enabling factors must be taken
into consideration for the planning of ICT-based in-service teacher
training. It is especially important to foster a feeling of ownership
among the teachers towards the learning program in addition to support
from colleagues and the school leaders.
As the favored incentive, the social studies teachers selected the
item "Investments of the institution on infrastructure of
instructional technologies". This finding highlights the fact that
access to ICT resources should be one of the primary goals to be met.
Related to this topic, Zhao, Pugh, Sheldon and Byers (2002) state that;
"Although in recent years there is a great progress in bringing
computers and networks to schools, we found that in many schools
teachers did not have easy access to either of the two
infrastructures" (p. 512), which is also similar to the case in
Turkey. The national programs have been of limited success not only
because they were formulated in non-educational realms, but also because
they were not based on research.
Social studies teachers pointed out that one of the main barriers
to technology implementation is insufficiency of teachers'
technical knowledge to prepare materials based on technology. This shows
us that equipping schools with ICT is not enough for attaining
educational change. The introduction of ICT into education requires an
equal level of innovation in other aspects of education. The inadequacy
of the technology courses offered to teachers and the lack of incentives
for encouraging technology are further barriers to ICT usage.
Teachers' attitudes toward computer technologies are also related
to teachers' computer competence. Teachers' computer
competence is a significant predictor of their attitudes toward
computers. Teachers who have difficulty using ICT maintained that the
main barriers were lack of knowledge and skills with computers that
would enable them to make "informed decisions".
The results related to self-efficacy validated the findings of both
inefficient use of technology due to lack of knowledge and strong belief
in the potential of using technology in and out of class activities.
Besides these, results once more indicated that most of the social
studies teachers are computer-illiterate and they need in-service
training. This finding was also paralleled by the finding that the major
barrier stated by almost all of teachers was "inefficiency of
teachers' technical knowledge to prepare materials based on
technology". The findings show that social studies teachers have
high awareness (Mean=15.24, SD 1.27), but low expertise level
(Mean=9.96, SD 6.74), which also indicated the lack of necessary
in-service training opportunities.
Usage of ICT in education is a complex process where many agents
play different roles. Forces that may influence or impede ICT usage
outside formal schooling should be taken into consideration. Contrary to
this fact, much of the early research on computer use in education has
ignored teachers' attitudes toward the new technologies. Studies
focused on ICT and their effect on teacher's competence; thus
overlooking the psychological and contextual factors involved in ICT
applications. However, it should not be forgotten that successful
implementation of educational technologies depends largely on the
attitudes of educators, who ultimately determine how they are used in
the classroom: teachers' attitudes are the major determining factor
in the adoption of technology. According to Rogers (1995), people's
attitudes toward a new technology are the key element in its diffusion.
Since Rogers uses the terms innovation and technology interchangeably
(p. 12), the diffusion of an innovation framework seems particularly
suited for the study of the diffusion of ICT. This suggests that studies
at the early stages of technology implementation should focus on the
end-users' attitudes toward technology.
A significant relationship has been found between the proximity of
computers and the number of access resources (both at home and school)
on the one hand, and, on the other, teachers' attitudes toward
computers. Teachers who have a high perception of efficacy tend to use
computer related tools in classroom more frequently than the others. The
results showed that teachers who have computer at home have a higher
level of expertise than the others.
All the results reported brought us to a conclusion which is also
stated in the literature by many researchers: the goal of the
integration of technology into the social studies area, like in all
other areas, has yet to be reached (Barron, Kemker, Harmes &
Kalaydjian (2003); Bielefeldt (2001); Mills & Tincher (2003)).
Conclusion
By the 1930s, Turkish schools had teaching materials such as maps,
laboratory equipment, and filmstrip projectors for instructional use.
Although they had teaching material such as maps and other equipment
they did not use them. Until the 1940s, mostly printed instructional
materials were used in schools. Between 1950 and 1970, schools had
technologies such as audio cassettes and overhead projectors. During the
1970s, several new teaching materials were provided for schools and
introduced to teachers. In addition, some big universities started to
offer graduate programs aimed at training professionals in the field of
traditional educational technology. Though some of these traditional
technologies are still in use to prepare students, educational policy
makers in Turkey believe that schools must give students the knowledge
and skills they will need in the future. Therefore, computers have
gained more importance than any other educational technology (Usun,
2004).
In order to improve ICT facilities and the skills of teachers, the
Ministry of Education is making investments, providing in-service
training and providing accessibility to resources. Besides equipping
selected schools with IT classrooms, another arrangement was made to
provide accessibility to these resources to other schools nearby.
Furthermore, the Ministry of Education has planned a project to provide
each teacher with his/her own laptop computer. These kinds of
innovations will support all teachers in Turkey in becoming competent
teachers in terms of ICT usage, besides furnishing access to the many
other advantages that technology provides. The diffusion of many new
technologies in society has not been equitable. Rogers (1995) theorized
that people who are innovative and quick to adopt new technology tend to
be younger and better educated, and to earn higher incomes than later-
and non-adopters of technology. Socio-economic status, access to
resources and equity in outcomes are important issues in education. For
instance, the availability of computers at school enables many teachers
to use them even though they may not have a computer at home.
Developing countries are vitally dependent on substantial foreign
assistance to ensure the development of ICT. However, it is often very
difficult to persuade donors to focus on ICT. These countries are
perennially short of foreign exchange to acquire the latest
technologies. Most developing countries are undergoing 'Structural
Adjustment Programs' under the auspices of the IMF. Cost-efficiency
of an ICT is another major factor that is important in determining its
growth. Developing countries have to ensure that the technology that is
adopted is easily accessible to the target group and also fulfills all
the functions that are expected of it. Such a scenario essentially
implies that a costly technology need not always be the best technology.
However, it is often seen that developing countries invest in the latest
technologies without considering whether the target audience can be
reached effectively or whether the target audience is interested in the
technology (Usun, 2004).
In the last decade, there have been a number of parallel projects
related to the integration of ICT in Turkey's educational system.
At the end of National Education Development Project (with the World
Bank and HEC), faculties of education reconstructed their curriculum to
train teacher candidates with abilities and skills to use ICT
effectively in their subject areas in 1998. After this year, the number
of ICT projects increased. For instance, the first phase of the basic
education project (with the World Bank) started in 1998. The scope of
the project was to build information technology classrooms in at least
two primary education schools in 80 cities and every town, and the
identified schools were grouped according to the number of students. In
that context, 2,834 information technology classrooms have been
scheduled to be built in 2,451 primary education schools all over the
country. This number has increased to 2,802 with 351 newly constructed
schools. The establishment of information technology classrooms in these
schools has been completed in all cities and towns (Goktas &
Yildirim, 2003).
The key points of this study on the ICT usage of social
studies' teachers are as follows: As a developing country, Turkey
is attempting to foster a culture of acceptance amongst the end-users of
ICT. Therefore, teachers' attitudes are indispensable to ICT usage
in the classroom. The key is double-headed: on one side there is the
human factor and on the other is the technological factor. Some
limitations such as teachers' lack of ICT usage skills and
insufficient infrastructure supporting ICT impede ICT usage. Hence, it
is necessary to promote these skills as a prerequisite to delivering ICT
facilities. The other main barriers to the implementation of ICT as
perceived by the teachers in this study are the mismatch between ICT and
the existing curricula and the class-time frame. It follows that placing
ICT in schools is not enough to attain educational change. The
introduction of ICT into education requires equal level of innovation in
other aspects of education. Both policymakers and teachers share this
responsibility. Policy-makers should provide additional planning time
for teachers to experiment with new ICT-based approaches. Reducing the
teaching load for the teachers may attain this. Teachers'
preparation necessitates not merely providing additional training
opportunities, but also aiding them in experimenting with ICT before
being able to use it in their classrooms. If decision makers want to
involve teachers in the process of technology integration, they need to
find ways to overcome the barriers perceived by the teachers.
Suggestions
Here are some suggestions for effective usage and implementation of
ICT. It would be useful to provide ICT knowledge as modules so that
teachers may integrate ICT into lessons. The ICT materials should
therefore be based on classroom research and provide excellent teaching
ideas and activities for developing and strengthening students'
concepts, skills and meta-cognition. Teachers and researchers can make
even better use of ICT facilities together. ICT has vast potential in
education but its effective use must be carefully tried out and planned
by researchers and teachers who know what to do with it in the
teaching-learning process. They have to determine what strategies are
needed for certain learning situations and how learning processes can be
enhanced using the technology. Merely providing schools with hardware,
software and in-service training is not enough. Any in-service training
needs follow-up support, peer coaching and peer dialogue to ensure
successful use of the new technologies. Teachers must be part of the
decision making process with respect to the implementations of ICT
innovations in schools, so that they may commit to the innovation with
conviction. Easy access to databases of the available curricular
resources and strategies would provide very useful information for
communication among teachers. There is a need for localized resource
centers to provide support for schools within a certain district.
Workshops for teachers and students in the area could be conducted to
promote cooperative projects and sharing of experiences and expertise.
Most teachers rely heavily on textbooks and blackboards; we can
re-vitalize education with ICT. In subsequent training workshops, key
personnel and trainers could each have opportunities to present an
aspect of ICT concept or use in the classroom. These presentations could
be about a feature of some ICT concept, resource or application in the
teaching and learning of a subject, a useful web site, or to show the
work of pupils themselves. The presenters could bring along handouts for
every teacher as well, so that teachers can compile the materials into a
guide or resource book. Repeat sessions may be necessary if there are
too many teachers for one group. There are also difficulties with the
maintenance of hardware and the purchase of new equipment and software
because of the high costs involved. It would also be useful to have
technicians available to assist the schools. Educators find it difficult
to integrate and introduce ICT for everyone in schools due to the high
cost of the provision and updating of networked equipment needed in an
already overloaded curriculum, and with teachers knowledgeable in ICT in
short supply. Teachers stated that they attended some courses, which the
principals selected for them. The instructors were not competent in
using computers and their knowledge of computer was average. Providing
continuing courses and sharing workshops planned throughout the
implementation of the project might be useful for these teachers.
Independent teachers will be able to achieve the project objectives with
minimum support from key personnel. A regular newsletter or bulletin
would be useful for teachers to write about good teaching ideas, that
they have found to be effective and successful, and for sharing with
others throughout the country and beyond.
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Yasemin Gulbahar
Faculty of Education, Baskent University, Turkey // Tel: +90 312
2341010/1076 // Fax: +90 312 2341174 //
gulbahar@baskent.edu.tr
Ismail Guven
Faculty of Educational Sciences, Ankara University, Turkey // Tel:
+90 312 3633350/5203 // Fax: +90 312 3636145
// iguven@mailcity.com
Appendix (Information and Communication Technology Usage Survey)
(This survey is presented here without directions and "other please
specify" items appearing under each heading as the last item)
Do you have your own Yes ( ) No ( )
computer?
Do you have computer at Yes ( ) No ( )
school?
Do you have Internet Yes ( ) No ( )
connection at home?
Do you have Internet Yes ( ) No ( )
connection at school?
Daily Computer Usage: Less than one hour ( ) 1-3 hours ( ) 3-5 hours
( ) More than 5 hours ( )
Software Usage Good Average None
Word Processors (Word etc.)
Spreadsheets (Excel etc.)
Presentation Software
(PowerPoint etc.)
Databases (Access etc.)
Computer Aided Instruction
Software
Web Page Development Tools
(FrontPage, dreamweaver etc.)
Web Browsers (Netscape,
Explorer etc.)
Search Engines (google,
yahoo etc.)
Electronic Mail (e-mail)
Discussion Lists and
Newsgroups
Chat and/or Forum
Electronic Encyclopedia
and/or Atlas
Instructional Films (video,
CD, VCD etc.)
Usage of Instructional Tools Frequently Sometimes Never
and Materials
Board
Overhead Projector
Opaque Projector and/or
Document Camera
Multimedia Computer
Computer - Projector System
Internet/Web Environment
Television/Video
Radio Cassette Recorder
Video Camera
Slide Projector
Printed Materials (journals,
books, worksheets etc.)
Professional Development about ICT
Information Resources I Prefer Neutral I don't
prefer
Internet
Printed Materials (manual or
journal etc.
Self experiment
Participating seminars or
taking courses
In-service Education
Support Resources I Prefer Neutral I don't
prefer
Experienced teachers on ICT
Colleagues
Other colleagues in different
schools
Technical support units in
the schools
Factors Encourage Technology Important Neutral Not
Usage Important
Rewarding the technology
usage efforts of teachers in
instructional activities
Investments of the institu-
tion on infrastructure of
instructional technologies
Investments of the institu-
tion on in-service education
programs for instructional
technologies
Investments of the institu-
tion on the support services
of instructional technologies
Developing the policies and
plans for diffusion of the
instructional technologies
Providing support for the
projects towards the
expansion of instructional
materials
Carrying out the studies for
integration of technology
into curriculum
Reducing work load to provide
opportunities to teachers for
developing instructional
materials
Perceptions about use of ICT Agree Neutral Disagree
I don't use computers as much
as other resources (books,
overhead projectors etc.)
for instructional purposes.
I know what to do for using
computers in instructional
environments.
I am aware of the
opportunities that computers
offer.
I can answer any question my
students ask about computers.
I am not sure that I am
computer-literate for use
computers in my classes.
I don't want to use
computers.
I think that I can use
instructional technologies in
class activities more
effectively day by day.
I believe that tools like
e-mail, forum and chat will
make communication with my
colleagues and students
easier.
I think that technology
supported teaching makes
learning more effective.
I think the use of
instructional technologies
increases the interest
of students toward courses.
I think the use of
instructional technologies
increases the quality of
courses.
I think that usage of
instructional technologies
makes it easier to prepare
course materials
(assignments, handouts etc.).
It is hard for me to explain
the use of computer
applications to my students.
I can handle different
learning preferences of my
students having different
learning styles by using
instructional technologies.
I think technology makes
effective use of class time.
I think using instructional
technologies makes me more
productive as a teacher.
I think that using technology
makes it easier to reach
instructional resources.
I don't prefer to be assessed
about my instructional
technology based applications
by any other professionals.
Barriers to Technology Usage Agree Neutral Disagree
Inefficient time to prepare
materials based on technology
Inefficiency of teachers'
technical knowledge to
prepare materials based on
technology
Problems about accessibility
to existing hardware
(computer, overhead
projector etc.)
Inefficiency of institutions
computer laboratory
Inefficiency of institutions
technical infrastructure
about instructional
technology
Inefficient number of media
(printer, scanner etc.) for
effective use of computers
Shortage of computers used
by teachers
Absence of reward systems for
encouraging technology usage
Poor technical and physical
infrastructure of learning
environments.
Inadequacy of computers used
by learners
Inefficiency of guidance and
support by administration
Insufficiency of financial
resources for technology
integration
Inefficiency of instructional
software/electronic resources
Scarcity in resources on
technology for attaining
information
Deficiency in professional
development opportunities for
gaining knowledge and skill
Deficiency in support
services in material
development/technology usage
Lack of interest of teachers
in technology usage
Difficulties of improper
teaching methods for
technology usage
Inadequacy of the courses of
technology offered to
studentsTable 1. Percentage of Assessed Factors that Encourage Social Studies
Teachers' Technology Usage
Important Neutral
Factors Encourage Technology Usage (%) (%)
Rewarding the technology usage efforts of 80,4 8,3
teachers in instructional activities
Investments of the institution on 96,6 3,1
infrastructure of instructional technologies
Investments of the institution on in-service 90,8 8,9
education programs for instructional
technologies
Investments of the institution on the support 84,7 12,9
services of instructional
technologies
Developing the policies and plans for 89,0 9,5
diffusion of the instructional technologies
Providing support for the projects towards 92,0 5,8
the expansion of instructional materials
Carrying out the studies for integration of 88,7 9,2
technology into curriculum
Reducing work load to provide opportunities 91,7 4,9
to teachers for developing instructional
materials
Not Important
Factors Encourage Technology Usage (%)
Rewarding the technology usage efforts of 10,4
teachers in instructional activities
Investments of the institution on 0
infrastructure of instructional technologies
Investments of the institution on in-service 0
education programs for instructional
technologies
Investments of the institution on the support 0
services of instructional
technologies
Developing the policies and plans for 1,2
diffusion of the instructional technologies
Providing support for the projects towards 1,8
the expansion of instructional materials
Carrying out the studies for integration of 1,8
technology into curriculum
Reducing work load to provide opportunities 3,4
to teachers for developing instructional
materials
Table 2. Perceptions of Social Studies Teachers about perceived
self-efficacy on ICT Usage
Agree Neutral
Perceptions (%) (%)
I don't use computers as much as other resources 42,0 5,5
(books, overhead projectors etc.) for
instructional purposes.
I know what to do for using computers in 48,5 29,8
instructional environments.
I am aware of the opportunities that computers 28,5 34,0
offer.
I can answer any question my students ask about 19,3 16,3
computers.
I am not sure that I am computer-literate for use 23,3 27,0
computers in my classes.
I don't want to use computers. 55,5 13,5
I think that I can use instructional technologies 70,9 18,7
in class activities more effectively day
by day.
I believe that tools like e-mail, forum and chat 90,5 6,4
will make communication with my
colleagues and students easier.
I think that technology supported teaching makes 95,7 2,1
learning more effective.
I think the use of instructional technologies 97,5 2,1
increases the interest of students toward
courses.
I think the use of instructional technologies 94,8 4,6
increases the quality of courses.
I think that usage of instructional technologies 90,8 7,1
makes it easier to prepare course
materials (assignments, handouts etc.).
It is hard for me to explain the use of computer 37,4 21,8
applications to my students.
I can handle different learning preferences of my 25,8 44,8
students having different learning styles
by using instructional technologies.
I think technology makes effective use of 77,9 17,8
class time.
I think using instructional technologies makes 94,2 4,9
me more productive as a teacher.
I think that using technology makes it easier to 95,4 0,6
reach instructional resources.
I don't prefer to be assessed about my 54,2 19,3
instructional technology based applications by
any other professionals.
Disagree
Perceptions (%)
I don't use computers as much as other resources 52,1
(books, overhead projectors etc.) for
instructional purposes.
I know what to do for using computers in 20,6
instructional environments.
I am aware of the opportunities that computers 33,1
offer.
I can answer any question my students ask about 64,1
computers.
I am not sure that I am computer-literate for use 48,8
computers in my classes.
I don't want to use computers. 27,3
I think that I can use instructional technologies 10,1
in class activities more effectively day
by day.
I believe that tools like e-mail, forum and chat 3,1
will make communication with my
colleagues and students easier.
I think that technology supported teaching makes 1,8
learning more effective.
I think the use of instructional technologies 0
increases the interest of students toward
courses.
I think the use of instructional technologies 0,3
increases the quality of courses.
I think that usage of instructional technologies 1,8
makes it easier to prepare course
materials (assignments, handouts etc.).
It is hard for me to explain the use of computer 38,3
applications to my students.
I can handle different learning preferences of my 29,1
students having different learning styles
by using instructional technologies.
I think technology makes effective use of 4,0
class time.
I think using instructional technologies makes 0
me more productive as a teacher.
I think that using technology makes it easier to 3,7
reach instructional resources.
I don't prefer to be assessed about my 24,2
instructional technology based applications by
any other professionals.
Table 3. Percentage of Assessed Barriers that Social Studies Teachers'
Faced During Technology Usage in Teaching-Learning Process
Agree Neutral
Barriers to Technology Usage (%) (%)
Inefficient time to prepare materials based 67,2 9,2
on technology
Inefficiency of teachers' technical knowledge to
prepare materials based on technology 94,2 4,3
Problems about accessibility to existing 70,6 11,0
hardware (computer, overhead projector etc.)
Inefficiency of institutions computer laboratory 69,0 4,0
Inefficiency of institutions technical 55,2 6,7
infrastructure about instructional technology
Inefficient number of media (printer, scanner 62,3 11,0
etc.) for effective use of computers
Shortage of computers used by teachers 65,6 0,6
Absence of reward systems for encouraging 73,9 15,0
technology usage
Poor technical and physical infrastructure of 69,9 8,6
learning environments.
Inadequacy of computers used by learners 69,3 7,1
Inefficiency of guidance and support by 68,7 8,9
administration
Insufficiency of financial resources for 69,6 16,9
technology integration
Inefficiency of instructional software/ 62,6 13,8
electronic resources
Scarcity in resources on technology for 50,3 18,7
attaining information
Deficiency in professional development 65,3 16,3
opportunities for gaining knowledge and skill
Deficiency in support services in material 47,5 21,8
development/technology usage
Lack of interest of teachers in technology usage 66,6 12,9
Difficulties of improper teaching methods for 54,6 34,4
technology usage
Inadequacy of the courses of technology offered 80,1 9,5
to teachers
Disagree
Barriers to Technology Usage (%)
Inefficient time to prepare materials based 23,9
on technology
Inefficiency of teachers' technical knowledge to
prepare materials based on technology 1,2
Problems about accessibility to existing 18,1
hardware (computer, overhead projector etc.)
Inefficiency of institutions computer laboratory 26,7
Inefficiency of institutions technical 37,7
infrastructure about instructional technology
Inefficient number of media (printer, scanner 26,4
etc.) for effective use of computers
Shortage of computers used by teachers 33,4
Absence of reward systems for encouraging 10,7
technology usage
Poor technical and physical infrastructure of 21,2
learning environments.
Inadequacy of computers used by learners 23,3
Inefficiency of guidance and support by 22,1
administration
Insufficiency of financial resources for 13,2
technology integration
Inefficiency of instructional software/ 22,7
electronic resources
Scarcity in resources on technology for 30,7
attaining information
Deficiency in professional development 18,1
opportunities for gaining knowledge and skill
Deficiency in support services in material 29,1
development/technology usage
Lack of interest of teachers in technology usage 20,2
Difficulties of improper teaching methods for 6,1
technology usage
Inadequacy of the courses of technology offered 10,1
to teachers
Table 4. Correlational Analysis between self-perception of efficacy
and self-rated expertise level of teachers
Computer Self-
Software Perceptions
Usage
Computer Pearson Correlation 1 ,552 **
Software Usage Sig. (2-tailed) , ,000
N 316 288
Self-Perceptions Pearson Correlation ,552 ** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,
N 288 297
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 5. Correlational Analysis between Relationships of teachers'
computer related tools usage in classroom and self-perceptions
of efficacy
Computer Self-
Software Perception
Usage of Efficacy
Computer Pearson Correlation 1 ,553 **
Software Usage Sig. (2-tailed) , ,000
N 326 325
Self-Perception Pearson Correlation ,553 ** 1
of Efficacy Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,
N 288 297
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 6. Correlational Analysis between Relationships of teachers'
computer related tools usage in classroom and level of expertise
Computer Level of
Software expertise
Usage
Computer Software Pearson Correlation 1 ,552 **
Usage Sig. (2-tailed) , ,000
N 323 323
Level of expertise Pearson Correlation ,552 ** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,
N 288 297
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).