GUIDED DEVELOPMENT OF REFLECTIVE THINKING IN THE OBSERVATIONS OF
CLASSROOM TEACHERS BY PRE-SERVICE CANDIDATES
By its very nature education is a profession in which the teacher,
during the normal course of events, has limited interaction with other
staff members. Thus an educator must be able to engage in an honest
self-evaluation of his/her professional performance, effectively relate
theory to practice, and modify/plan experiences that enhance learning
and classroom environment.
Teachers need to be able to self-evaluate their use of strategies
related to the various elements of instruction. They must be able to
reflect on their practice and make accommodations in order to insure
student learning (NCATE, 2008). The teacher education literature
stresses the importance of developing reflective thinking by examining
practices and arriving on a course of action in a systematic way
(Shulman, 1992). Aspiring teachers need to develop the ability to
reflect about instruction and classroom management if they are to
develop into competent educators. This process of self-evaluation can be
nurtured and developed by the clinical instructor when conferencing with
the student teacher if approached in a methodical fashion (Golland,
1998). It is imperative that those who are to become teachers learn to
thoughtfully reflect upon their lessons and practices in order to
maximize instructional effectiveness. It has been noted that
traditionally some classroom teachers adopt methods that stress the
efficiency of practice at the expense of student learning (Hatton,
1989). This has been the bane of traditional teacher education programs.
In many instances aspiring teachers are placed with cooperating teachers
that may very well emphasize drill and practice over teaching critical
thinking and 21st-Century classroom procedures.
Hence we have the dilemma: How do pre-service teachers develop the
ability to self evaluate? Lottie (1975) postulated that reflective
practices are most beneficial when practiced among peers rather than
individually. This lends itself to a mentoring/supervision process for
aspiring teachers in which a university supervisor provides structured
prompts to each teacher candidate with respect to the lesson observed
and engages the candidate in reflecting on elements that worked well and
those that needed improvement. Successful observation feedback keys in
on a specific point which serve to focus post-conference discussions and
thus build "reflectiveness" in the intern (Acheson and Gall,
1992).
Impediments to the Development of Reflection in Aspiring Teachers
"Reflection" is acknowledged as an important skill to be
developed in teacher candidates by texts utilized in introductory
teacher education courses. They, however, do little to rigorously
develop it. For example, Kauchak and Eggen (2008) state,
"...self-assessment requires that teachers develop a disposition
for continually and critically examining their work"(p.18) while
Hall, Quinn and Gollnick (2008) postulate that, "The intuition
aspect of teaching develops through a process of reflection that is
automatic, continuous and that draws on all manner of visual and sensory
awareness... " (pp 329-330). While these sources affirm the
importance of reflection, they do little to guide the development of
this skill.
Another impediment to the development of the reflective process is
the disconnect between theory (what the aspiring teacher learns from the
university professors) and practice (what the aspiring teacher learns
from his/her teaching mentor) (Kaufmann, 1992). Levine (2006) noted
that:
One alumnus reported the problem with his teacher education
program: 'I could talk about Carl Jung, scaffolding, cooperative
learning groups, [and]the advantage of constructivism,' but had no
idea what to do 'when Johnny goes nuts in the back of the class, or
when Lisa comes in abused, or when Sue hasn't eaten in three
days.' What he described is a symptom of a serious problem
described by one education alumnus as 'an abyss' between
theory and practice. (39)
This disconnect has been identified in the literature and addressed
under the broad heading of "coherence" (Grossman, Hammerness,
McDonald, & Ronfeldt, 2008). Aspiring teachers feel this schism
viscerally. One study suggested that the university could help reduce it
by providing experiences which connect theory to the everyday realities
of teaching (Volante, 2006). Thus, if the quality of teacher education
programs is to improve, it is necessary to incorporate college courses
with field based experiences through the use of integrated teaching
strategies (Darling-Hammond, 2006). In "A Sense of Calling" it
was noted that new teachers felt that they had too much theory in
college and not enough of the practical information necessary to meet
the everyday challenges of teaching (Farkas, Johnson, & Foleno,
2000).
Rationale for a Reflective Observation and Analysis Model
This author has observed that the lack of coherence is most acute
for prospective teachers when they are engaged in their first field
experience. This is usually paired with an introductory course which, in
many instances, also is the student's first education course. For
these field observations the students are often required to keep a
"journal" in which they are encouraged to concentrate on one
facet of instruction and record their comments (Parkay & Stanford,
2007). Unfortunately, the logs often are often a chronological diary of
observed events and lack meaningful analysis and reflection.
Occasionally the prospective teachers are asked to 'reflect'
on one particular event during the observation. The problem is that when
the aspiring teachers present personal response 'journals' of
this nature they believe that they have actually engaged in
'reflective thinking'. Prospective teachers, since they have
no prior formal educational training, "reflect" based upon
their personal experiences as students themselves. In the framework
identified by Sparks-Langer et al. (1991) the teacher candidates, by
reflecting through the process noted, seldom move further than
discussing their experiences in terms of a description provided by a
layperson.
True reflection should be guided by an analysis rooted in sound
educational principles. Accepted pedagogy and sound educational theory
need to serve as the foundation by which practice is evaluated; this
knowledge, prior to field experiences, provides a framework by which the
aspiring teachers are able to intelligently reflect on the field
observation. This enables the aspiring teacher to comment on practice
based upon the unique contextual factors and educational theory
(Sparks-Langer et al., 1991).
The Guided Reflective Observation and Analysis Model
It is therefore critical to develop the ability to reflect in
aspiring teachers if they are to develop into accomplished educators.
The Guided Reflective Observation and Analysis Model presented in this
paper utilizes the theory learned in the university as a vehicle for
thoughtful consideration of practices observed in the classroom to
develop reflective thinking in prospective teachers. In the Guided
Reflective Observation and Analysis Model approach the undergraduates,
in the beginning of the course (prior to their field experiences),
through lectures and focused activities are provided with the
theoretical and practical pedagogical information in fundamental areas
essential to effective teaching. With a knowledge base the aspiring
teachers are able to effectively analyze and reflect on their field
observations. The prospective teachers have a standard by which they can
intelligently reflect on their experiences. Additionally, each of the
prospective teacher candidates is paired with the university course
instructor for selected field observations. In this way the
novice's responses can be compared to the instructor's
reaction to the lesson(s) and the aspiring candidate's
interpretation of the lesson adequately critiqued.
The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
(NCATE) in Standard 1 states that:
Candidates preparing to work in schools as teachers or other school
professionals know and demonstrate the content knowledge, pedagogical
content knowledge and skills, pedagogical and professional knowledge and
skills, and professional dispositions necessary to help all students.
(p.16)
To affect this standard the first element of the Guided Reflective
Observation and Analysis Model focuses on providing the teacher
candidates with the critical elements related to the knowledge and
skills necessary to insure student learning. The teacher candidates are
first taught the basic elements essential to the development of an
educationally sound lesson (a modified version of Madeline Hunter's
ITIP model for planning instruction). They are taught that lessons
should engage students in the learning activity. The aspiring teachers
are guided through a discussion that commences with the importance of
educational goals and standards. They are introduced to the state
standards, shown a website and provided examples of various standards in
the disciplines in which the teacher candidates wish to major. An
example of the New Jersey Core Content Curriculum Standards for Social
Studies is shown below:
6.4.8 E. Revolution and the New Nation (1754-1820)
1. Discuss the background and major issues of the American
Revolution, including the political and economic causes and consequences
of the revolution. (NJCCS, 2004)
Next, the teacher candidates are introduced to the concept of
educational objectives (Allen, 1998). They are taught that objectives
should be written in measurable terms (SWBAT-students will be able to).
The aspiring teachers are provided with several examples of objectives,
are asked to develop objectives of their own and critique them. One such
objective developed by the class in the area of Language Arts was:
Students will be able to identify and classify different types of
figurative language (Field Notes, 2007). The concept of an objective is
further explored later through an explanation and discussion of
Bloom's Taxonomy (Armstrong, 2002). The candidates are reintroduced
to objectives in terms of knowledge (what a student needs to know in
order to successfully understand a lesson) i.e. lower level thinking
skills a la Bloom and skills (what a student will be able to do upon
completing the unit) (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). Students are
afforded the opportunity to practice writing objectives in terms of
knowledge and skills.
In the third step the teacher candidates are taught the elements of
an "anticipatory set" (Allen, 1998) or "hook"
(Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) and provided with an example of a hook.
The prospective teachers are encouraged to develop their own
anticipatory sets. One hook developed by the class for the addition of
time was that: The teacher should commence the class with a discussion
of activities that children engage in after school. (If the teacher
wishes he/she could also include the weekend in the activities.) The
teacher could elicit from the students some of the things they do in
their time after school (e.g.--soccer, using the computer, etc.) and
from there the teacher would 'teach' the children how to add
hours and minutes (Field Notes, 2007).
The various hooks/anticipatory sets are critiqued and discussed by
the class as a whole. Integral to the discussion is the necessity to
connect prior knowledge and interests in the anticipatory set.
In the fourth step the instructor engages the class in a discussion
of the importance of identifying the instructional resources and
materials necessary for the lesson. The importance of identifying time
as an important resource is examined. This leads to a conversation on
the body of the lesson. The first element explored is a conversation on
the importance of identifying the component parts of a lesson in order
to maintain the interests of learners. This includes, but is not limited
to, the teacher lecturing, modeling an activity, and checking for
understanding. The importance of differentiating instruction is noted
along with the rationale for it. The concept of "wait time" is
also introduced (Rowe, 1986). The class is provided with examples for
each element discussed and asked to develop samples illustrating the
elements.
In the fifth step, the instructor introduces the aspiring teachers
to the concept of guided practice whereby the learners have the chance
to demonstrate their knowledge of the lesson under the watchful guidance
of the teacher. Included in this segment is the concept of "praise,
prompt, and leave" (Fred Jones, 2007, pp 66-67).
The lesson then progresses to a discussion of the concept of
closure in a lesson and its purpose. The class provides examples such as
the use of exit slips or the completion of a KWL chart (Ogle, 1986). The
aspiring teachers are led to conclude that closure is similar to the
ending of a story or movie. It brings all the loose ends together to
form a coherent conclusion to the lesson.
The necessity for students to be provided with independent practice
and the various forms it may take is explored. The class is led to
conclude that through independent practice the students demonstrate a
mastery of the content and the learning solidified.
Finally, the teacher candidates are introduced to formal and
informal assessments. The aspiring teachers are encouraged to provide
examples and the instructor supplements them with other illustrations.
In concluding, the instructor stresses to the teacher candidates that
not all of the noted elements need to be contained in every class. The
developing teachers are encouraged to provide instances when certain
elements may be omitted from a lesson.
Upon the culmination of these lectures the undergraduates are
provided with paradigm that identifies the essential elements of a
successful lesson (See Appendix I). They have a viable model to which
they utilize to analyze their classroom field observations; they have a
knowledge base that can used to guide (structure) their reflecting (See
Figure 1. University Setting A).
The second element of the Guided Reflective Observation and
Analysis Model focuses on the skills and knowledge needed to develop and
maintain a classroom management approach that provides an environment
conducive to learning. The U.S. Department of Education's Institute
of Education Sciences reported that problematic student behavior was
cited as a source of dissatisfaction by forty-four percent of the
teachers who left the profession in the 1999-2000 academic year (U.S.
Department of Education, 2005). The positive relationship between
classroom management and effective instruction is discussed. This is
followed by a discourse on the characteristics of a well-managed class.
The instructor then leads a discussion on the similarity between a
classroom environment and society at large. The one noted is that
society has rules in order to function effectively. Therefore it stands
to reason that a classroom should have appropriate rules as well. This
leads to a conversation on the necessity to develop classroom rules. The
class is informed that literature recommends that there should be three
to five rules for an effective classroom (Shank, 2002). The relationship
of classroom rules to Piaget's Theory on the Stages of Development
(Langer & Killen, 1998) in children is discussed and noted. This
leads to the conclusion that valid rules for students need to be
observable and unequivocally predicated. Several examples of classroom
rules that have been developed by teacher candidates are shown below:
* Follow directions the first time given
* Don't interrupt when someone else is speaking
* Keep hands, feet and objects to yourself
* No swearing, teasing or yelling
* Don't leave the room without permission (Field Notes, 2007)
The consequences that a classroom teacher should implement when the
rules are not followed are the next element discussed. The instructor
notes that there should be four to five consequences, hierarchical in
nature, and need not be severe in order to be effective (Shank, 2002).
In other words, the first consequence should be a warning and then
progress to the ultimate removal from the classroom. Examples of
consequences utilized by classroom teachers at various levels are
presented to the undergraduate students and their merits discussed.
* First Offense: A warning will be issued and the student will be
reminded of the rule that was broken.
* Second Offense: Stay after class to discuss the behavior.
* Third Offense: A call home to parents.
* Fourth Offense: A half hour detention after school.
* Fifth Offense: Removal from the classroom (Field Notes, 2008)
The importance of developing a consequence to protect the safety
and learning environment is discussed and the following sample Safety
Clause shared: If a student endangers him/herself, others or defies
authority the student will be immediately removed from the class. (Field
Notes, 2008)
The aspiring teachers are taught to differentiate between a
consequence and a punishment. In the lecture and discussion, it is
emphasized that the goal of an effective classroom management program is
for the children to develop an internal locus. Students with a well
developed internal locus of control accept responsibility for their
actions, while those with an external locus of control attribute their
actions to factors in the environment.
The aspiring teachers are acquainted with the concept of positive
reinforcement (Skinner, 2005) and the rationale for it. The class is
asked to identify positive reinforcements that are used in various life
situations. This directly leads to a discussion of the necessity to
provide supportive feedback to students in recognition of their efforts
(Shank, 2002). The positives could be material or non-material in
nature. The class is asked to provide examples of ways that a teacher
may offer reinforcement of positive behavior. Several examples of
positives utilized by teachers are noted below:
* Positive praise
* Positive notes/calls home
* Self-selected activities
* Music played while doing class work (Field Notes, 2007)
The instructor finally lectures on the necessity of development of
adequate classroom procedures. If the teacher does not develop adequate
procedures, then students will not be able to function efficiently
(Wong, 2001). The instructor explains to the prospective teachers that
rules are in effect all the time and have consequences if they are not
followed, while procedures are simply the way that things should be done
and are without consequences (Wong, 2001). The instructor asks for
several examples of situations where procedures are necessary,
additional examples are shown, and then discussed (See Figure 1.
University Setting B).
Following this series of lectures, the prospective teachers are
equipped with a fundamental knowledge of the basics of an educationally
sound lesson and the elements necessary to effectively manage a
classroom. At this point the undergraduate students commence their field
observations. They are required to observe the teaching of a lesson and
reflect upon it utilizing the criteria developed in the lectures. The
teacher candidates utilize the framework provided as a guide to complete
this task (Appendix A). During the next lesson the prospective teachers
are asked to analyze the classroom management techniques in light of the
information learned from the classroom instruction utilizing the guide
provided (Appendix B). Finally the novice educators are asked to comment
on the general classroom atmosphere according to the educational
principles enunciated in classroom discourses (Appendix C). The college
students are required to submit a written response dealing with the
noted areas the next time their class meets.
The third element of the Guided Reflective Observation and Analysis
Model is that the instructor accompanies the aspiring teachers on their
field visits, observes in several classrooms and responds to the same
prompts as the students. The advantage of this approach is that it
provides the aspiring teachers an opportunity to utilize the educational
concepts learned in the university and apply them in a real life
setting; this insures that when the class is analyzing a specific case
it has the benefit of an educationally sound knowledge base rather than
engaging in a mass pooling of ignorance. The guided observation approach
helps bridge the gap between theory and practice. When the
undergraduates return to class they have the opportunity to discuss
their visitation in a systematic manner based on accepted educational
principles. The aspiring teachers discuss their analysis and the
instructor, using a Socratic approach, leads the students to develop a
deeper insight into the art of teaching (See Figure 1. Field Observation
C).
After one guided observation, a college student noted that the
teacher in a class he observed had excellent classroom management skills
because the students were on task and worked well. The professor,
because he also observed the lesson, was able to call attention to
several teacher behaviors that contributed to a positive classroom
climate. For example, when a student was not on task the teacher walked
over to the student and spoke softly to the student asking him to attend
to the assigned task. This is a technique that would have been unnoticed
had the college instructor not been present during the class. Another
technique utilized was that the teacher used humor at times when
correcting student behavior. For example: At one point the class was
asked to take out their notes from the previous day. One boy did not
comply with the request. The teacher said, "Will everyone, and Jose
(fictitious name), please take out your notes." Jose looked up at
the teacher, smiled sheepishly and complied with the request (Field
Notes, 2008). These incidents, in turn, provided the basis for a portion
of the next class lecture in which the aspiring teachers were engaged in
a discussion of "How to unobtrusively keep students on-task."
The professor moderated the discussion and provided the teacher
candidates with examples (such as those observed) and educational
literature related to the topic.
Another college student wrote that a teacher did not have an
anticipatory set but rather merely went over the homework from the
previous day. The college instructor also observed the class and noted
that the homework was structured in a manner that not only reinforced
previous learning but also provided a basis for the lesson of the day
and ascertained prior knowledge of the students. Had the college
instructor not been present, the student would not have realized that
the technique observed was successful in bridging the pervious lesson to
the one presented that day (Field Notes, 2008). This led to a discussion
of the anticipatory set in class and provided an opportunity to expand
the concept.
The structured analysis of the observations by the teacher
candidates provides a unique opportunity for the use of a real life case
study approach to aid in the development of the critical thinking skills
and linking theory to practice. Two teacher candidates observed a class
and reported on what they felt was a unique way to provide positive
praise to students. The college instructor was also present in the
classroom. In the class, the teacher called out the grades the students
received on a test and complimented those who scored well. During the
lecture session at the university there was a discussion of the
practice. Several of the aspiring teachers approved of this method to
provide positive reinforcement to students. The professor presented a
mini-lecture on the concept of "unanticipated consequences"
and the effect that having someone's name called out who received a
poor grade on a test or quiz (See Figure 1. University Setting D). The
teacher candidates were asked to recall the concept of "supportive
feedback" and the professor reviewed several ways to provide
supportive feedback. The teacher candidates at the culmination of the
session concluded that while some of the students would feel good about
doing well on an assignment others might be embarrassed or even
resentful of having their grade known by everyone. This led to a
dialogue of how a teacher could provide positive reinforcement without
causing others to be embarrassed. Some ways the teacher candidates
brainstormed were: Writing encouraging comments on the test, providing
comments personally to the students during while they work independently
or as the students leave the class (Field Notes, 2008). The complete
model is presented in Figure 1.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
CONCLUSION
The Guided Reflective Observation and Analysis Model provides
aspiring teachers the opportunity to connect theory to practice through
the use of 'real life' case studies based upon classroom
observations. This structured approach enables teacher candidates to
link theory to practice. Utilizing this methodology, the college
instructor has the opportunity to guide the development of true
reflective thinking based upon sound educational principles and
theories.
The teacher candidates, through participation in class lectures and
individual conferences, are able to successfully develop the process of
reflective thinking. In conclusion, the utilization of the Guided
Reflective Observation and Analysis Model enables aspiring teachers to
successfully analyze the learning/classroom environment in light of
educational theory. The application of this approach, while labor
intensive, systematically allows teacher candidates to develop a
framework whereby there is greater coherence between what is taught in
the university and what actually happens in the classroom.
Appendix A
Lesson Analysis
This task requires the student to observe a class and determine if
the following elements are present in the lesson. The student should
also identify the components of each element and present a summary
evaluation including areas that could be improved. The report should not
be in a yes/no format but rather as a narrative.
1. Educational Objectives and Standards:
2. Anticipatory Set
3. Instructional Materials & Resources
4. Procedures/Strategies (Were mini-lessons utilized?)- Were higher
level thinking skills stressed in the questioning of the students? Was
there evidence of differentiation of instruction?
5. Guided Practice
6. Closure & Extension
7. Assessment/Evaluation
8. What was your overall evaluation of the lesson? Did it work?
What would you have changed if you were teaching the lesson?
Appendix B
Classroom Management
This task requires the student to observe a class and determine
which of the following elements of classroom management were present.
The student should also identify the components of each element and
present a summary evaluation including any areas that could be improved.
The report should not be in a yes/no format but rather as a narrative.
1. Expectations are clearly communicated to the class (rules)
2. Consequences are clearly communicated- (Enumerate as needed)
3. Positives are specified- (Enumerate as needed)
4. Were students always on task? If not how did the teacher
redirect them? Was the approach effective? If the approach was not
effective what would you have done?
5. Did any students misbehave? If so how were the misbehaviors
handled? Was the approach effective? If the approach was not effective
what would you have done?
Appendix C
General Observations
1. General Class Atmosphere
2. Did the teacher develop higher level thinking skills? If not how
would you have incorporated these skills? If the teacher did how did the
teacher do it? Provide specific examples.
3. Which activities/ lessons went well? Why do you think they
worked?
4. Which activities/lessons did not work out well? Why do you think
they didn't work out? What would you do to make the lesson
successful?
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